Spelling

French spelling reflects, on the one hand, the pronunciation of the Middle Ages and, on the other hand, strives to imitate the Latin orthography. It is, in other words, not phonetic, but etymological (as is the spelling of English) and seems rather complicated.
 

Vowels (Voyelles)

A has two phonetic meanings:

• [a] is an opened palatal vowel as the a in E. father, cf.:
balle [bal] ball,
armée [ame] army;
• [] is a back vowel, often written â (it has disappeared from the contemporary French speech), cf.:
âge [] age
tâche [t] task.

• [] is an opened front vowel, similar to the English ai in air, but without the following schwa sound; it is written e in monosyllabic words and in front of the double consonants ll, nn, pp, tt, rr or a consonantic cluster; it is written è (e accent grave) and ê (e accent circonflexe) in the other cases (see the Usage of the diacritical signs), cf.:
sel [sl] salt,
étrenne [etn] present (gift),
pelle [pl] shovel,
lettre [lt()] letter,
perdre [pd()] to lose,
herbe [b()] grass,
père [p] father,
bête [bt] beast;
• [e] is a closed front vowel as the English e in pet; it is written e in front of mute final -r, -t, -z and é (e accent aigü) in the other cases (see the Usage of the diacritical signs), cf.:
parler [pale] to speak,
muet [mye] mute,
nez [ne] nose,
équipage [ekipa] crew.

étrenner [etene] to be the first to use, to use for the first time;
événement [evnm] event.

It may be stated that in orthographically open syllables is written closed e (i.e. é) and in orthographically closed syllables is written open e (i.e. è). On the other hand, in phonetically open syllables is pronounced closed e (i.e. [e]) and in phonetically closed syllables is pronounced open e (i.e. []). It occurs in the speech, under the influence of stressed [y], [i] or [e], that the open e [] becomes closed [e]; this phenomenon is referred to as vowels' harmonization, cf.:

bêtise [betiz] and more rarely [btiz] nonsense,
aimer [eme] and more rarely [me] to love (see Vowel Combinations).

élevage [lva] instead of [elva] breeding,
médesin [mds] instead of [meds] physician.

I may be a vowel or semivowel:

• [i] a front vowel as the English i in pit, cf.:
mine [min] mine;
• [j] a semivowel as the English y in yet, that occurs in front of a vowel, cf.:
bien [bj] well,
million [milj] million.

O has two phonetic values:

• [] an open vowel, similar to the Britis English o in hot, cf.:
gomme [gm] rubber;
• [o] a closed vowel, similar to the English o in go but without the second element [u]; it is written ô (o accent circonflexe -- see the Usage of the diacritical signs) or o (in this case it occurs at the end of the words), cf.:
mot [mo] word,
trop [to] too much / many,
ôter [ote] to lift up.

• [y] is a rounded front vowel, intermediary between [u] and [i]: it is pronounced by preparing the mouth for [i] and then [u] sound is articulated (it is much like the German ü), cf.:
user [uze] to use,
usine [uzin] factory;
• [] is a semivowel articulated by trying to pronounce [y] before a vowel, cf.:
huite [it] eight,
huile [il] cooking oil.
• [] in the combination um in the Latin loan-words, cf.:
triumvir [timvi] triumvir,
référendum [efedm] referendum;
• [w] in the combinatin qua of some words, cf.:
équateur [ekwatœ] equator,
équation [ekwasj] equation.

The mute "e" (L' "e" muet ou caduc)

The so called mute "e" (written always without accent mark) may occur in the middle of the word in front of a single pronounceable consonant, or at the end of the word, cf.:

élever [elve] to lift up, elevate;
petit [pti] little, small, petty;
s'asseoir [saswa] to sit down;
mode [md] mode.

The mute "e" occurs at the end of the words after a double consonant or a consonantic cluster; in the latter case a feable schwa sound [] may be heard, cf.:

elle [l] she,
monde [md()] world,
prendre [pd()] to take.

petit [p()ti] little, small, petty;
survenir [syvni] to come surprisingly.

The mute "e" has a special function in the French writing system. It may open the syllables and change the articulation of the preceding vowel (see especially the Nasalized vowels) or make pronounceable the final consonants (see the Mute consonants), cf.:

moins [mw] (one closed syllable) less  <versus> moi|ne [mwan] (two syllables in the writing) monk,
dos [do] back <versus> dose [doz] dose.

See also Stress and Articulation.
 

Vowel Combinations

French uses a lot of vowel combinations; with one exception (oi) all of them represent a single sound, cf:
 

Combination:	Sound:	Examples:
ai	[]	chaise [z] chair
au	[o]	chaud [o] hot
eau	[o]	beauté [bote] beauty
ei	[]	peine [pn] pain
eu	[œ]  [ø]	heure [œ] hour peu [pø] few, little
œu	[œ]	cœur [kœ] heart
oi	[wa]	poire [pwa] pear
ou	[u]	loup [lu] wolf

The sounds [œ] and [ø] are intermediary between [e] and [o]: it is pronounced by preparing the mouth for [e] and then [o] sound is articulated (it is much like the German ö).

The sound [u] is the same as u in the English put.
 

Reading of the letter "y"

French follows the Latin tradition of transliterating the Greek ypsillon by "y" in the Greek loan-words (for this reason the name of the letter in French is i Grec Greek i); in this usage the situation in English is quite the same, cf.:

• [i] in the Greek loan-words:
cycle [sikl()] cycle,
mythe [mit] myth.

The letter "y" is pronounced

• [j] in the begininnig of the words before a vowel, cf.:
yatagan [jatag] yataghan,
yen [jn] yen (Japanese monetary unit).

yèble [jbl()] danewort  =>  l'yèble [ljbl()] the danewort,
yeuse [jøz] green oak  =>  l'yeuse [ljøz] the green oak,
yeux [jø] eyes  => les yeux [lezjø] the eyes.

essuyer = essui-ier [sije] to wipe (off),
payer = pai-ier [pje] to pay,
foyer = foi-ier [fwaje] lounge.

Nasalized Vowels

In syllables closed by m or n the preceding vowels are nasalized. Note that m and n are not articulated and all the vowels with the exception of o change their timbre, cf.:
 

Letter	Pronunciation before m / n in closed syllables		Examples
a	[]		champ [] field change [] change
e	[]		temps [t] time centre [st()] center
i	[]		simple [spl()] simple fin [f] end
o	[]		ombre [br()] shadow contrée [kte] country
u	[]		humble [bl()] humble commun [km] common

There is a tendency the nasalized [] to be equalized with [].

In contemporary French the vowels are not nasalized in front of double -mm- / -nn-, cf.:

femme [fam] formerly [fm] woman,
pomme [pm] formerly [pm] apple,
solennité [slanite] formerly [slnite] solemnity.

Vowel Combination	Pronunciation before m / n  in closed syllables		Examples
ai	[]		pain [p] bread faim [f] hunger
ei	[]		plein [pl] full
ie	[j]		bien [bj] well
oi	[w]		point [pw] point

The simple vowels and vowel combinations are denasalized in open syllables, cf.:

commun [km]  => commune [kmyn] common,
moins [mw] less <vs>  moine [mwan] monk.

s'enamourer [snamue] to fall in love,
enivrer [nive] to intoxicate.

Vowels' Lengthening

Vowels' lengthening has no distinctive function in contemporary French and at present it is considered optinal. Only the stressed vowels may be lenghtened:

• the simple vowels [], [o], [ø] and the nasalized vowels [], [], [], [] in front of a pronounceable vowel, cf.:
chance [:s] chance,
émeute [emø:t] riot.
• the stressed vowels in front of the sounds [], [z], [v], [] and the group [v], cf.:
bonheur [bnø:] happiness,
chèvre [:v] goat,
voyage [vwaja:] voyage.

Consonants (Consonnes)

The following letters have only one phonetic value:

• B = [b] as the b in E. probably, cf.:
bouche [bu] mouth,
bateau [bato] ship.
• D = [d] as the d in E. render, cf.:
douche [du] shower,
doux [du] sweet.
• F = [f] as the f in E. oriflame, cf.:
file [fil] thread,
front [f] forehead, front.
• J = [] as the s in E. vision, cf.:
jambe [b] leg,
joindre [wd()] to join.
• L = [l] as the ll in E. telling, cf.:
large [la] wide,
long [l] long.
• M = [m] as the m in E. time, cf.:
mère [m] mother,
mine [min] mine.
• N = [n] as the n in E. line, cf.:
neuf [nœf] nine,
nuque [nyk] neck.
• P = [p] as the p in E. cope, cf.:
père [p] father,
pipe [pip] pipe.
• R = [] an uvular sound without exact equivalent neither in British nor in American pronunciation; it is obtained by making the uvula to vibrate, cf.:
rouge [u] red,
roi [wa] king.
• V = [v] as the v in E. driver, cf.:
vie [vi] life,
ville [vil] city, town.
• Z = [z] as the z in E. zoo, cf.:
zèle [zl] zeal,
zone [zon] zone.

• C
• [k] before a, o, u or a consonant, cf.:

calme [kalm] calm,
crête [kt] crest.
• [s] before e, i, y; and before a, o, u if the cedilla sign (,) is used under the c, cf.:

cellule [selyl] cell,
cité [site] city,
cygne [si] swan,
ça [sa] this, that,
garçon [gas] boy,
reçu [sy] received.
• G
• [g] before a, o, u or a consonant, and in the combinations gue-, gui- (the u is mute), cf.:

garder [gade] to guard,
grand [g] big, large.
guerre [g] war,
guider [gide] to guide.
• [] ( = E. s in vision) before e, i, y cf.:

manger [me] to eat,
agir [ai] to act.
• S
• [s] in the beginning of the word or before a consonant, cf.:

sourire [sui] to smile,
crête [kt] crest.
• [z] between vowels, cf.:

cousin [kuz] cousin,
rose [roz] rose.
• T
• [t] is the usual pronunciation, cf.:

tomate [tmat] tomato,
taille [taj] stature.
• [s] before i+vowel, if the "t" itself is not preceded by s, cf.:

démocratie [demkasi] democracy,
nation [nasj] nation,
but
question [kstj] question.

The letter "q"

The letter q is followed always by u with two exceptions only:

cinq [sk] five,
coq [kk] cock.

qualité [kalite] quality,
époque [epk] epoch.

équateur [ekwatœ] equator,
équation [ekwasj] equation.

In very few cases the u is pronounced [], cf.:

quinquennal [kknnal] quinquennial.

Consonant Combinations

French uses two consonant combinations for specific sounds:

• Ch [] sounds as the sh in E. shop; till the 13th century it was pronounced [t] and this pronunciation is preserved in the Old French loan-words in English, cf.:
changer [e] to change,
charger [ae] to charge.
• Gn [] sounds as the ny in E. canyon, cf.:
ligne [li] line,
signe [si] sign.

Consonant Combination	Pronun- ciation	Occurrence	Examples
ch	[t]	in English and Spanish words	challenge
kh	[x]	in Oriental words mainly	khan
ng	[]	in English words	camping
sh	[]	in English words	smash
tch	[t]	in transcription of foreign names	Tchad
zh	[]	in transcription of foreign names	Brezhnev

The letter "x" is read in four manners:

• [ks] before consonant and between vowels, when the second vowel is followed by voiceless consonant, cf.:
extase [ekstaz] frenzy,
taxi [taksi] taxi.
• [gz] between vowels, when the second vowel is followed by voiced consonant cf.:
exemple [egzpl] example,
exercice [egzesis] exercice,
exile [egzil] exile,
exode [egzod] exodus.
• [s] in the end of the words six and dix:
six [sis] six,
dix [dis] ten.
• [z] in the words sixième and dixième:
sixième [sizjm] sixth,
dixième [dizjm] tenth.

The Greek Consonants

French has inherited from Latin the specific transliteration of some Greek letters (this is exactly the case in English),, cf.:
 

Greek Letter	Transliteration	Pronunciation	Examples
thêta	th	[t]	mathématique [matematik] mathematical
rhô (initial)	rh (r)	[]	rhumatisme [ymatism] rheumatism rythme [itm()] rhythm
phi	ph	[f]	philosophie [filzfi] philosophy
chi	ch (c)	[k], []	christianisme [kristjanism] christianity chirurgie [iyi] surgery caractère [kaakt] character

The letter z, except in the ending -ez, occurs almost in Greek words only.

See also the letter "y".

See the Greek alphabet.
 

Mute consonants

The final -b (preceded by -m-), d, p, s, t, x, z are mute, cf.:

plomb [pl] lead (metal),
chaud [o] warm, hot,
trop [to] very much,
très [t] very much,
part [pa] part,
prix [pi] price,
assez [ase] enough.

composés [kpze] compound (pl.),
congrès [kg] congress,

but

grandes [gd] big, large (fpl.).

aimer [me] to love,
arriver [aive] to arrive,

but

partir [pati] to depart,
punir [pyni] to punish.

compter [kte] to count,
sculpture [skylty] sculpture.

temps [t] time, tense,
corps [k] body, corpse.

See also the "l" mouillé.
 

The letter "h"

The letter h is never pronounced except in the interjection hop [hop] (where it sounds exactly as the English h in home). It is used mainly etymologically or, in the middle of the words, as a divider to avoid hyatus, as in:

envahir [vai] to invade,
trahir [tai] to betray.

*haïr [ai] to hate,
*haller [ale] to haul,
*halter [alte] to halt,
*hâter [ate] to hasten,
*haut [o] high,
*hibou [ibu] owl etc.

The "L" mouillé

The older French pronunciation had a soft l-sound [], similar to the English li in the word Italian, and exactly as the sound transcribed in modern Italian by -gl-, in modern Portuguese and Occitan by -lh- and in some Latin American Spanish dialects represented by -ll-. Yet in the 19th century this so called l mouillé became a purely glide sound [j] (as y in the English yet) in the common people's speech and by the beginning of the 20th century this pronunciation was recognized as official. By the way, this is the same process that is under way in the contemporary Spanish language, where in the main Castilian dialect the -ll- has already became [j], while some other dialects, as those in the Spanish-speaking America, still retain the older pronunciation [].

The l mouillé, now pronounced [j] is presented in modern French spelling in two manners:

• -il after a vowel and in the end of the word, cf.
chandail [daj] pullover
soleil [slej] sun
• -ill- between vowels, cf.:
faillir [faji] to fail
surveiller [syveje] to surveil
-ill- after a consonant and in front of a vowel, cf.:
billard [bija] billiards
fille [fij] daughter, girl.

voile [vwal] veil
voilier [vwalje] sail (ship).

mille [mil] thousand,
ville [vil] town.

Stress and Articulation

The French words are stressed always on the ultimate syllable; the stressed vowel may be lenghtened (see Vowels' Lenghtening).

The words are pronounced not separately (i.e. inisolation), but in phrasal blocs (spoken chains) and only the ultimate syllable of the bloc is stressed. This manner of articulation has its impact on the vowels' lenghtening, cf. the pronunciation of fort strong / very in the examples below:

Il est grand et fort [ilg ef:] He is tall and strong.
Il est fort beau [il fbo] He is very beautiful.

à table [atabl] on the table,
table à repasser [tablapase] ironing table,
table ronde [tabld] round table,
la fenêtre [lafnt] the window,
une fenêtre [ynfnt] a (one) window.

Liaison

The words of the phrasal blocs interact between themselves. If the the latter word of the phrasal bloc begins with a vowel or non-consonantic h the final mute consonant of the preceding word may be pronounced. This phenomenon is referred to as liaison. Note that the final s and x are pronounced [z] and the final d sounds as [t], cf.:

les hommes [lezm] the men,
prix unique [pizynik] exclusive price,
le grand empire [lgtpi] the great empire.

Elision (Élision)

The mute final e of the pronouns je I, me me, te you, se himself / herself / themselves, que what, which, that (the latter may be also a conjunction) is dropped and replaced by an apostrophe in front of a word beginning with a vowel, cf.:

j'aime [m] I love,
je t'aime [tm] I love you,
ils s'appellent [ilsapl] they call themselves,
je veux qu'il vienne [vø kilvjn] I want that he come.

s'il veux [silvø] if he wants,
s'ils veulent [silvøl] if they want.

c'est [s] this is...